HISTORY OF GOOGLE:
Early history
Larry Page and Sergey Brin in 2003
Google began in March 1996 as a research project by
Larry Page and
Sergey Brin,
Ph.D. students at
Stanford[1] working on the
Stanford Digital Library Project
(SDLP). The SDLP's goal was “to develop the enabling technologies for a
single, integrated and universal digital library." and was funded
through the
National Science Foundation among other federal agencies.
[2][3][4][5] In search for a dissertation theme, Page considered—among other things—exploring the mathematical properties of the
World Wide Web, understanding its link structure as a huge
graph.
[6] His supervisor
Terry Winograd encouraged him to pick this idea (which Page later recalled as "the best advice I ever got"
[7])
and Page focused on the problem of finding out which web pages link to a
given page, considering the number and nature of such backlinks to be
valuable information about that page (with the role of
citations in
academic publishing in mind).
[6] In his research project, nicknamed "BackRub", he was soon joined by
Sergey Brin, a fellow Stanford Ph.D. student supported by a
National Science Foundation Graduate Fellowship.
[2]
Brin was already a close friend, whom Page had first met in the summer
of 1995 in a group of potential new students which Brin had volunteered
to show around the campus.
[6] Page's
web crawler began exploring the web in March 1996, setting out from Page's own Stanford home page as its only starting point.
[6] To convert the backlink data that it gathered into a measure of importance for a given web page, Brin and Page developed the
PageRank algorithm.
[6]
Analyzing BackRub's output—which, for a given URL, consisted of a list
of backlinks ranked by importance—it occurred to them that a search
engine based on PageRank would produce better results than existing
techniques (existing search engines at the time essentially ranked
results according to how many times the search term appeared on a page).
[6][8]
A small search engine called "RankDex" from IDD Information Services (a subsidiary of
Dow Jones) designed by
Robin Li was, since 1996, already exploring a similar strategy for site-scoring and page ranking.
[9] The technology in RankDex would be patented
[10] and used later when Li founded
Baidu in China.
[11][12]
Convinced that the pages with the most links to them from other
highly relevant Web pages must be the most relevant pages associated
with the search, Page and Brin tested their thesis as part of their
studies, and laid the foundation for their search engine. By early 1997,
the backrub page described the state as follows:
[13]
Some Rough Statistics (from August 29th, 1996)
Total indexable HTML urls: 75.2306 Million
Total content downloaded: 207.022 gigabytes
...
BackRub is written in Java and Python and runs on several Sun Ultras
and Intel Pentiums running Linux. The primary database is kept on an Sun
Ultra II with 28GB of disk. Scott Hassan and Alan Steremberg have
provided a great deal of very talented implementation help. Sergey Brin
has also been very involved and deserves many thanks.
-Larry Page page@cs.stanford.edu
Originally the search engine used the Stanford website with the domain
google.stanford.edu. The domain
google.com was registered on September 15, 1997. They formally incorporated their company,
Google Inc., on September 4, 1998 at a friend's garage in
Menlo Park, California.
Both Brin and Page had been against using advertising pop-ups in a
search engine, or an "advertising funded search engines" model, and they
wrote a research paper in 1998 on the topic while still students.
However, they soon changed their minds and early on allowed simple text
ads.
[14]
Google Home Page September 1998
By the end of 1998, Google had an index of about 60 million pages.
[15] The home page was still marked "
BETA", but an article in
Salon.com already argued that Google's search results were better than those of competitors like
Hotbot or
Excite.com, and praised it for being more technologically innovative than the overloaded
portal sites (like
Yahoo!, Excite.com,
Lycos, Netscape's
Netcenter,
AOL.com,
Go.com and
MSN.com) which at that time, during the growing
dot-com bubble, were seen as "the future of the Web", especially by stock market investors.
[15]
In March 1999, the company moved into offices at
165 University Avenue in
Palo Alto, home to several other noted
Silicon Valley technology startups.
[16] After quickly outgrowing two other sites, the company leased a complex of buildings in
Mountain View at 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway from
Silicon Graphics (SGI) in 2003.
[17] The company has remained at this location ever since, and the complex has since become known as the
Googleplex (a play on the word
googolplex, a number that is equal to 1 followed by a googol of zeros). In 2006, Google bought the property from SGI for
$319 million.
[18]
The Google search engine attracted a loyal following among the growing number of Internet users, who liked its simple design.
[19] In 2000, Google began selling
advertisements associated with search
keywords.
[1] The ads were text-based to maintain an uncluttered page design and to maximize page loading speed.
[1] Keywords were sold based on a combination of price bid and click-throughs, with bidding starting at $.05 per click.
[1] This model of selling keyword advertising was pioneered by
Goto.com (later renamed Overture Services, before being acquired by
Yahoo! and rebranded as
Yahoo! Search Marketing).
[20][21][22] While many of its
dot-com rivals failed in the new Internet marketplace, Google quietly rose in stature while generating revenue.
[1]
Google's declared
code of conduct is "
Don't be evil", a phrase which they went so far as to include in their
prospectus (aka "S-1") for their 2004
IPO,
noting, "We believe strongly that in the long term, we will be better
served — as shareholders and in all other ways — by a company that does
good things for the world even if we forgo some short term gains."
[23]
[edit] Financing and initial public offering
The first funding for Google as a company was secured on August 1998 in the form of a $100,000
USD contribution from
Andy Bechtolsheim, co-founder of
Sun Microsystems, given to a corporation which did not yet exist.
[24]
On June 7, 1999, a round of equity funding totalling $25 million was announced;
[25] the major investors being rival venture capital firms
Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers and
Sequoia Capital.
[24]
While Google still needed a lot of funding for their further
expansion, Brin and Page were hesitant to take the company public even
though that would basically solve most of their financial issues. They
were not ready to give up their control over Google. After borrowing the
$25 million venture capital money from Kleiner Perkins Caufield &
Byers and Sequoia Capital, Sequoia forced Brin and Page to hire a
CEO or else they would take back that borrowed $12.5 million. Finally, Brin and Page gave in and hired
Eric Schmidt as Google’s first CEO in March 2001 and the company went public three years later.
[26]
In October 2003, while discussing a possible
initial public offering of shares (IPO),
Microsoft approached the company about a possible partnership or
merger.
[27] However, no such deal ever materialized. In January 2004, Google announced the hiring of
Morgan Stanley and
Goldman Sachs Group to arrange an IPO. The IPO was projected to raise as much as $4 billion.
On April 29, 2004, Google made an
S-1 form SEC filing for an IPO to raise as much as $2,718,281,828. This alludes to Google's corporate culture with a touch of
mathematical humor as
e ≈ 2.718281828. April 29 was also the 120th day of 2004, and according to section 12(g) of the
Securities Exchange Act of 1934,
"a company must file financial and other information with the SEC 120
days after the close of the year in which the company reaches $10
million in assets and/or 500 shareholders, including people with stock
options."
[28]
Google has stated in its annual filing for 2004 that every one of its
3,021 employees, "except temporary employees and contractors, are also
equity holders, with significant collective employee ownership", so
Google would have needed to make its financial information public by
filing them with the SEC regardless of whether or not they intended to
make a public offering. As Google stated in the filing, their, "growth
has reduced some of the advantages of private ownership. By law, certain
private companies must report as if they were public companies. The
deadline imposed by this requirement accelerated our decision." The SEC
filing revealed that Google turned a profit every year since 2001 and
earned a profit of $105.6 million on revenues of $961.8 million during
2003.
In May 2004, Google officially cut Goldman Sachs from the IPO, leaving Morgan Stanley and
Credit Suisse First Boston as the joint
underwriters. They chose the unconventional way of allocating the initial offering through an auction (specifically, a "
Dutch auction"),
so that "anyone" would be able to participate in the offering. The
smallest required account balances at most authorized online brokers
that are allowed to participate in an IPO, however, are around $100,000.
In the run-up to the IPO the company was forced to slash the price and
size of the offering, but the process did not run into any technical
difficulties or result in any significant legal challenges. The initial
offering of shares was sold for $85 a piece. The public valued it at
$100.34 at the close of the first day of trading, which saw 22,351,900
shares change hands.
Google's initial public offering took place on August 25, 2004. A total of 19,605,052
shares were offered at a price of $85 per share.
[29] Of that, 14,142,135 (another mathematical reference as
√2 ≈ 1.4142135) were floated by Google and 5,462,917 by selling stockholders. The sale raised
US$1.67 billion, and gave Google a
market capitalization of more than $23 billion.
[30]
The vast majority of Google's 271 million shares remained under
Google's control. Many of Google's employees became instant paper
millionaires.
Yahoo!, a competitor of Google, also benefited from the IPO because it owns 2.7 million shares of Google.
[31]
The company is listed on the
NASDAQ stock exchange under the
ticker symbol GOOG.
[edit] Growth
The first iteration of Google production servers was built with inexpensive hardware and was designed to be very fault-tolerant
In February 2003, Google acquired
Pyra Labs, owner of
Blogger, a pioneering and leading
web log
hosting website. Some analysts considered the acquisition inconsistent
with Google's business model. However, the acquisition secured the
company's competitive ability to use information gleaned from blog
postings to improve the speed and relevance of articles contained in a
companion product to the search engine
Google News.
At its peak in early 2004, Google handled upwards of 84.7% of all search requests on the
World Wide Web through its website and through its partnerships with other
Internet clients like Yahoo!,
AOL, and
CNN.
In February 2004, Yahoo! dropped its partnership with Google, providing
an independent search engine of its own. This cost Google some
market share, yet Yahoo!'s move highlighted Google's own distinctiveness, and today the verb "
to google" has entered a number of languages (first as a
slang verb and now as a standard word), meaning, "to perform a web search" (a possible indication of "Google" becoming a
genericized trademark).
the relationship between Google, Baidu, and Yahoo
After the IPO, Google's stock market capitalization rose greatly and
the stock price more than quadrupled. On August 19, 2004 the number of
shares outstanding was 172.85 million while the "
free float" was 19.60 million (which makes 89% held by
insiders).
In January 2005 the number of shares outstanding was up 100 million to
273.42 million, 53% of that was held by insiders, which made the float
127.70 million (up 110 million shares from the first trading day). The
two founders are said to hold almost 30% of the outstanding shares. The
actual voting power of the insiders is much higher, however, as Google
has a dual class stock structure in which each Class B share gets ten
votes compared to each Class A share getting one. Page says in the
prospectus
that Google has, "a dual class structure that is biased toward
stability and independence and that requires investors to bet on the
team, especially Sergey and me." The company has not reported any
treasury stock holdings as of the Q3 2004 report.
On June 1, 2005, Google shares gained nearly four percent after
Credit Suisse First Boston raised its price target on the stock to $350.
On that same day, rumors circulated in the financial community that
Google would soon be included in the
S&P 500.
[32]
When companies are first listed on the S&P 500 they typically
experience a bump in share price due to the rapid accumulation of the
stock within index funds that track the S&P 500. The rumors,
however, were premature and Google was not added to the S&P 500
until 2006. Nevertheless, on June 7, 2005, Google was valued at nearly
$52 billion, making it one of the world's biggest media companies by
stock market value.
On August 18, 2005 (one year after the initial IPO), Google announced
that it would sell 14,159,265 (another mathematical reference as
Ï€
≈ 3.14159265) more shares of its stock to raise money. The move would
double Google's cash stockpile to $7 billion. Google said it would use
the money for "acquisitions of complementary businesses, technologies or
other assets".
[33]
On September 28, 2005, Google announced a long-term research partnership with
NASA which would involve Google building a 1,000,000-square-foot (93,000 m
2) R&D center at NASA's
Ames Research Center, and on December 31, 2005
Time Warner's AOL unit and Google unveiled an expanded partnership—see
Partnerships below.
Additionally in 2005, Google formed a partnership with
Sun Microsystems to help share and distribute each other's technologies. As part of the partnership Google will hire employees to help in the
open source office program
OpenOffice.org.
[34]
With Google's increased size comes more competition from large
mainstream technology companies. One such example is the rivalry between
Microsoft and Google.
[35] Microsoft has been touting its
Bing
search engine to counter Google's competitive position. Furthermore,
the two companies are increasingly offering overlapping services, such
as
webmail (Gmail vs.
Hotmail), search (both online and local desktop searching), and other applications (for example, Microsoft's
Windows Live Local competes with
Google Earth). In addition to an
Internet Explorer replacement Google is designing its own
Linux-based
operating system called Chrome OS to directly compete with
Microsoft Windows. There were also rumors of a Google
web browser, fueled much by the fact that Google is the owner of the
domain name "gbrowser.com". These were later proven when Google released
Google Chrome.
This corporate feud is most directly expressed in hiring offers and
defections. Many Microsoft employees who worked on Internet Explorer
have left to work for Google. This feud boiled over into the courts when
Kai-Fu Lee, a former vice-president of Microsoft, quit Microsoft to work for Google. Microsoft sued to stop his move by citing Lee's
non-compete contract (he had access to much sensitive information regarding Microsoft's plans in
China).
Google and Microsoft reached a settlement out of court on December 22, 2005, the terms of which are confidential.
[36]
Click fraud
has also become a growing problem for Google's business strategy.
Google's CFO George Reyes said in a December 2004 investor conference
that "something has to be done about this really, really quickly,
because I think, potentially, it threatens our business model."
[37]
Some have suggested that Google is not doing enough to combat click
fraud. Jessie Stricchiola, president of Alchemist Media, called Google,
"the most stubborn and the least willing to cooperate with advertisers",
when it comes to click fraud.
While the company's primary market is in the web content arena,
Google has also recently began to experiment with other markets, such as
radio and print publications. On January 17, 2006, Google announced
that it had purchased the radio advertising company
dMarc, which provides an automated system that allows companies to advertise on the radio.
[38]
This will allow Google to combine two advertising media—the Internet
and radio—with Google's ability to laser-focus on the tastes of
consumers. Google has also begun an experiment in selling advertisements
from its advertisers in offline newspapers and magazines, with select
advertisements in the
Chicago Sun-Times.
[39] They have been filling unsold space in the newspaper that would have normally been used for in-house advertisements.
During the third quarter 2005 Google Conference Call, Eric Schmidt
said, "We don't do the same thing as everyone else does. And so if you
try to predict our product strategy by simply saying well so and so has
this and Google will do the same thing, it's almost always the wrong
answer. We look at markets as they exist and we assume they are pretty
well served by their existing players. We try to see new problems and
new markets using the technology that others use and we build."
After months of speculation, Google was added to the
Standard & Poor's 500 index (S&P 500) on March 31, 2006.
[40] Google replaced
Burlington Resources, a major oil producer based in
Houston that had been acquired by
ConocoPhillips.
[41] The day after the announcement Google's share price rose by 7%.
[42]
Over the course of the past decade, Google has become quite well
known for its corporate culture and innovative, clean products, and has
had a major impact on online culture.
The name "Google" originated from a misspelling of "
googol,"
[43][44] which refers to the number represented by a 1 followed by one-hundred zeros. Page and Brin write in their original paper on
PageRank [45]: "We chose our systems name, Google, because it is a common spelling of googol, or 10
100 and fits well with our goal of building very large-scale search engines."
However,
Enid Blyton used the phrase "Google Bun" in
The Magic Faraway Tree (published 1941)
The Folk of the Faraway Tree (published 1946),
[46] and called a clown character "Google" in
Circus Days Again (published 1942),
[47] and there is also the
Googleplex Star Thinker from
Douglas Adams'
The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy.
Having found its way increasingly into everyday language, the verb, "
google," was added to the
Merriam Webster Collegiate Dictionary and the
Oxford English Dictionary in 2006, meaning "to use the Google search engine to obtain information on the Internet."
[48][49] The use of the term itself reflects their mission to organize a seemingly infinite amount of information on the web.
[44] In November 2009, the
Global Language Monitor named "Google" No. 7 on its Top Words of the Decade list.
[50] In December 2009 the
BBC highlighted Google in their "Portrait of the Decade (Words)" series.
[51]
[edit] Philanthropy
In 2004, Google formed a non-profit philanthropic wing,
Google.org, giving it a starting fund of $1 billion.
[52] The express mission of the organization is to help with the issues of
climate change (see also
global warming), global public health, and
global poverty. Among its first projects is to develop a viable
plug-in hybrid electric vehicle that can attain 100
mpg.
[53]
[edit] Acquisitions
-
Since 2001, Google has acquired several small companies, often
consisting of innovative teams and products. One of the earlier
companies that Google bought was
Pyra Labs. They were the creators of
Blogger,
a weblog publishing platform, first launched in 1999. This acquisition
led to many premium features becoming free. Pyra Labs was originally
formed by
Evan Williams,
yet he left Google in 2004. In early 2006, Google acquired Upstartle, a
company responsible for the online collaborative word processor,
Writely. The technology in this product was combined with Google
Spreadsheets to become
Google Docs & Spreadsheets.
The logo of YouTube, which in late 2006 was acquired by Google.
On October 9, 2006, Google announced that it would buy the popular online video site
YouTube for $1.65 billion.
[54]
The brand, YouTube, will continue to exist, and will not merge with
Google Video. Meanwhile, Google Video signed an agreement with
Sony BMG Music Entertainment and the
Warner Music Group, for both companies to deliver music videos to the site.
[55] The deal was finalized by November 13.
[56]
On October 31, 2006, Google announced that it had purchased
JotSpot,
a company that helped pioneer the market for collaborative, web-based
business software to bolster its position in the online document arena.
[57]
On March 17, 2007, Google announced its acquisition of two more companies. The first is
Gapminder's
Trendalyzer
software, a company that specializes in developing information
technology for provision of free statistics in new visual and animated
ways
[58] On the same day, Google also announced its acquisition of
Adscape Media, a small
in-game advertising company based in
San Francisco, California.
[59]
Google also acquired PeakStream Technologies.
[edit] Partnerships
Google has worked with several corporations, in order to improve
production and services. On September 28, 2005,Google announced a
long-term research partnership with NASA which would involve Google
building a 1,000,000-square-foot (93,000 m
2) R&D center at NASA's
Ames Research Center.
NASA and Google are planning to work together on a variety of areas,
including large-scale data management, massively distributed computing,
bio-
info-
nano
convergence, and encouragement of the entrepreneurial space industry.
The new building would also include labs, offices, and housing for
Google engineers.
[60] In October 2006, Google formed a partnership with
Sun Microsystems to help share and distribute each other's technologies. As part of the partnership Google will hire employees to help the
open source office program
OpenOffice.org.
[34]
Time Warner's
AOL unit and Google unveiled an expanded partnership on December 21,
2005, including an enhanced global advertising partnership and a
$1 billion investment by Google for a 5% stake in AOL.
[61]
As part of the collaboration, Google plans to work with AOL on video
search and offer AOL's premium-video service within Google Video. This
did not allow users of Google Video to search for AOL's premium-video
services. Display advertising throughout the Google network will also
increase.
In August 2003, Google signed a $900 million offer with
News Corp.'s Fox Interactive Media unit to provide search and advertising on
MySpace and other News Corp. websites including
IGN,
AmericanIdol.com, Fox.com, and
Rotten Tomatoes, although
Fox Sports is not included as a deal already exists between News Corp. and
MSN.
[62][63]
On December 6, 2006,
British Sky Broadcasting released details of a Sky and Google alliance.
[64]
This includes a feature where Gmail will link with Sky and host a mail
service for Sky, incorporating the email domain "@sky.com".
In 2007, Google displaced
America Online as a key partner and sponsor of the
NORAD Tracks Santa program.
[65][66][67] Google Earth was used for the first time to give visitors to the website the impression that they were following
Santa Claus' progress in
3-D.
[68] The program also made its presence known on
YouTube in 2007 as part of its partnership with Google.
[69]
In January 2009, Google announced a partnership with the
Pontifical Council for Social Communications, allowing the
Pope to have his own channel on
YouTube.
[70]
[edit] New mobile top-level domain
In coordination with several of the major corporations, including
Microsoft,
Nokia,
Samsung, and
Ericsson, Google provided financial support in the launch of the
.mobi
top level domain created specifically for the mobile internet, stating
that it is supporting the new domain extension to help set the standards
that will define the future of mobile content and improve the
experience of Google users.
[71] In early 2006, Google launched
Google.mobi,
a mobile search portal offering several Google mobile products,
including stripped-down versions of its applications and services for
mobile users.
[72]
On September 17, 2007, Google launched, "Adsense for Mobile", a service
to its publishing partners providing the ability to monetize their
mobile websites through the targeted placement of mobile text ads.
[73]
Also in September, Google acquired the mobile social networking site,
Zingku.mobi to "provide people worldwide with direct access to Google
applications, and ultimately the information they want and need, right
from their mobile devices."
[74]
[edit] Legal battles
[edit] Gonzales v. Google
On Wednesday, January 18, 2006, the
U.S. Justice Department filed a
motion to compel in
United States district court in
San Jose
seeking a court order that would compel search engine company Google
Inc. to turn over, "a multi-stage random sample of one million
URL’s",
from Google’s database, and a computer file with, "the text of each
search string entered onto Google’s search engine over a one-week period
(absent any information identifying the person who entered such
query)."
[75] Google maintains that their policy has always been to assure its users' privacy and anonymity, and challenged the
subpoena.
On March 18, 2006, a federal judge ruled that while Google must
surrender 50,000 random URLs, the Department of Justice did not meet the
necessary burden to force Google to disclose any search terms entered
by its users.
[edit] Bedrock Computer Technologies, LLC vs. Google, Inc
A jury in Texas awarded
Bedrock Computer Technologies $5 million in a patent lawsuit against Google.
[76][77]
The patent allegedly covered use of hash tables with garbage collection
and external chaining in the Red Hat Linux kernel. The judgment was
later
vacated by the court.
[78]
[edit] See also
[edit] References
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